slotheverythingpunctuation

What's a Clause?

A clause is a group of words that contains a noun (or pronoun) and a verb.

* Many of your punctuation choices will depend upon the types of clauses you're using in your sentences. So it's important to learn the differences between the two different types of clauses.

Clauses come in two types:

Dependent clauses cannot stand by themselves. (They are sentence fragments.)

As the chimp ate the banana

When the enraged gorilla whacked Professor Sauvé

Independent Clauses can stand by themselves. In other words, they are sentences.

Mr. Sauvé drank too much beer at the party.

Mary was happy her hula lessons were a success.

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The Comma: Rule #1

Use a comma between words, phrases, or clauses in a series. (The previous sentence is an example. ) Here are some more examples:

Jim is fascinated with dogs, cats, and primates.

Elizabeth wasn't sure whether she wanted to buy chairs, book shelves, or new curtains for her new house.

Important note: While it's permissible to omit the comma before the "and" or the "or," some people prefer to retain it to prevent a reader from being confused.

Here's an example of a sentence that's confusing because the writer chose to not to use the comma:

In the class sat an orangutan, a MUNI driver, a student eating a sandwich and a parakeet.
(Yum! Don't you just love fresh parakeet sandwiches?)

Notice how much more logical (and humane) the sentence is if we include the "optional" comma:

In the class sat an orangutan, a MUNI driver, a student eating a sandwich, and a parakeet.
So be careful about including or excluding commas with lists, and check with your instructor about her/his preferences regarding this rule.

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The Comma: Rule #2

Use a comma to separate independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction.

This is Rule #2 written out as a formula:

SENTENCE #1 + COMMA + COORDINATING CONJUNCTION + SENTENCE #2

You can remember the coordinating conjunctions because they spell out FANBOYS:

for and nor but or yet so

Here are some examples of Rule #2:

She had planned to go to Disneyland, but the weather was too cold.

He wasn't afraid to die, for his conscience was clear.

The Comma: Rule #3

Use a comma after a long introductory phrase or subordinate clause.

This is Rule #3 written out as a formula:

LONG INTRODUCTORY PHRASE OR CLAUSE + COMMA + CORE SENTENCE

Here are some examples of Rule #3:

Long phrase: With the long uphill part of the course behind him, the runner felt more confident.

Long clause: When the long uphill part of the course was behind him, the runner felt more confident.

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The Comma: Rule #4

The comma is optional after a short introductory phrase or clause. Read the sentence out loud to yourself: if it sounds better or makes more sense with a pause after the introductory phrase or clause, then use a comma.

This is Rule #4 written out as a formula:

SHORT INTRODUCTORY PHRASE OR CLAUSE + OPTIONAL COMMA + CORE SENTENCE

Either one of these examples is correct:

While watching the game the family in the seats next to us kept bickering.

or

While watching the game, the family in the seats next to us kept bickering.

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The Comma: Rule #5

Introductory participle, infinitive, and gerund phrases are normally set off by commas.

This is Rule #5 written out as a formula:

INTRO. PARTICIPIAL, INFINITIVE, OR GERUND PHRASE + COMMA + CORE SENTENCE

A participle (in this context) is a verb that has been turned into an adjective.

(participle) Living for centuries, redwoods often reach a height of three hundred feet.

Stalking the terrified student, the hungry extra-terrestrial prepared for dinner.

An infinitive is the "to" form of a verb. (You put "to" in front of the core form of the verb.)

(infinitive) To verify or correct his hypotheses, a scientist performs an experiment.

To look for a better job, Michael had to take some sick days.

A gerund is a verb that has been turned into a noun.

(gerund) After finishing the marathon, the runner was exhausted but jubilant.

While writing his memoirs, Mr. Sauvé realized his life had been far more exciting than he had imagined.

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The Comma: Rule #6

Use commas to set off material that interrupts and modifies a core sentence.

This is Rule #6 written out as a formula:

SUBJECT /VERB PHRASE + COMMA + INTERRUPTING MATERIAL + COMMA + REST OF CORE SENTENCE

Here are some examples of Rule #6:

Mr. Sauvé, who is well-known to be obnoxious, was beaten senseless by the irritated student.

The dog ran, even though its leg was badly lacerated, to get help for his injured master.

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The Semicolon: Rule #1

Use a semicolon between independent clauses not joined by coordinating conjunctions.

This is Rule #1 written out as a formula:

SENTENCE #1 + SEMICOLON + CLOSELY RELATED SENTENCE #2

Here are some examples of Rule #1:

She decided not to go to Disneyland; the weather was too cold.

He wasn't afraid to die; his conscience was clear.

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The Semicolon: Rule #2

Use a semicolon between two independent clauses joined by a conjunctive adverb or sentence modifier.

This is Rule #2 written out as a formula:

SENTENCE #1 + SEMICOLON + CONJUNCTIVE ADVERB + RELATED SENTENCE #2

Some (but not all) common conjunctive adverbs and sentence modifiers spell out

CAT IN THE HAT IS NOT FAT

consequently also therefore instead next thus however even so hence accordingly then

in fact secondly nowadays on the other hand to begin with for example as a result to conclude
Here are some examples of Rule #2:

Albert did not take the final exam or turn in his paper; consequently, he failed the class.

With a sentence modifier:

Moby Dick is not merely an adventure story; in fact, it is a great philosophical novel.

Important note: a conjunctive adverb or sentence modifier at at the beginning of a sentence is always followed by a comma.

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The Semicolon: Rule #3

Use a semicolon to separate independent clauses which contain internal punctuation (even when a

coordinating conjunction is present).

Moby Dick, by Herman Melville, is an adventure story; but in addition to being a classic sea yarn, it is also a great philosophical novel.

Remember, a conjunctive adverb or sentence modifier at the beginning of a sentence is always followed by a comma.

The Colon: Rule #1

Use a colon to formally introduce quotations, statements, or items in a series.

This is Rule #1 written out as a formula:

FORMAL INTRO. SENTENCE OR CLAUSE + COLON + MATERIAL BEING INTRODUCED

Here are some examples of Rule #1:

(quotation) In the concluding lines of Clarissa's speech, Alexander Pope makes clear his
view of what truly matters in a woman's conduct: "Charms strike the sight, but

merit wins the soul."

(statement) Above all, we must remember this: no woman is an island.

(Series) Our cats sometimes catch small animals: birds, mice, squirrels, and moles.

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The Colon: Rule #2

Use a colon between two independent clauses when the second explains or exemplifies the first.

This is Rule #2 written out as a formula:

SENTENCE #1 + COLON + SENTENCE #2 THAT PROVES/EXPLAINS SENTENCE #1

Here are some examples of Rule #2:

Moby Dick is more than an adventure story: it is a great philosophical novel.

After the death of her husband, Emma's sense of loss was total: she went into a deep depression that lasted for months.

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When NOT to Use a Colon

*DO NOT use a colon after a verb or a preposition:

(wrongo) My three favorite American films are: Bambi, Attack of the Killer Tomatoes, and Golden Retriever Commandos.

(righto) My three favorite American films are the following: Bambi, Attack of the Killer Tomatoes, and Golden Retriever Commandos.

OR (and even better)

My three favorite films are Bambi, Attack of the Killer Tomatoes, and Golden Retriever Commandos.

(wrongo) I am fond of: enchiladas, pizza, and hot fudge sundaes.

(righto) I am fond of enchiladas, pizza, and hot fudge sundaes.

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The Dash: Rule #1

Use a dash to add emphasis to an idea at the end of a sentence.

Hulk Hogan planned to get the paper in on time--even if he had to stay up all night.

The Dash: Rule #2

Use dashes, instead of commas, around an interrupter to emphasize the interrupting material. To take away emphasis from an interrupter, use parentheses.

(emphatic) Hulk Hogan planned--even if he had to stay up all night--to get the paper in on time.

(This implies that the Hulkster rarely, if ever, stays up all night in order to complete his school assignments.)

(less emphatic) Brett the Hitman Hart planned, even if he had to stay up all night, to get the paper in on time.

(This implies that it is unusual but not unprecedented for Brett to stay up all night to do an assignment.)

(not emphatic) Ravishing Rick Rude planned (even if he had to stay up all night) to get the paper in on time.

(This implies that all-nighters are a fairly common occurrence in Ravishing Rick's academic life.)

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The Dash: Rule #3

Use dashes around an interrupter if commas appear in the interrupting material.

All of my pets--Mopsey, Cal, Darcy, and Bingley--have their eccentricities.

The Dash: Rule #4

Use a dash following a series at the beginning of a sentence.

Bambi, Attack of the Killer Tomatoes, Golden Retriever Commandos--these are my three favorite American films.

The Dash: Rule #5

A dash also acts as an informal substitute for a colon. (It indicates a more conversational tone.)

Moby Dick is more than an adventure story--it is a great philosophical novel.

A Typographical Reminder

Note that the dash is created by typing two hyphens--just like these--flush against the words they separate (though some word processing programs now have a "dash" mark…).

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